Abstracts in theological studies
Máté Márkus: The Basic Concepts of Existentialism: Nietzsche
In this article, the author explores the philosophical antecedents of Nietzsche’s thought, with a focus on voluntarism and the key concepts of his philosophy. The discussion begins with Augustine’s notion of love—understood as a dynamic force by which essence actualizes itself in existence—then proceeds through Schelling’s philosophy of will and nature, setting the stage for Schopenhauer’s pessimistic interpretation of the will. Finally, the article examines how Nietzsche adopts and transforms Schopenhauer’s concept of the will, introducing his central ideas such as the will to power, the revaluation of values, the Übermensch, and the eternal return.
Keywords: Nietzsche, voluntarism, philosophy of the will, Schelling, Schopenhauer, will to power, übermensch, eternal return
Ábel Tikász: The Islam in the Theology of Abraham Kuyper (1837-1920)
The study examines the relationship of Abraham Kuyper (1837–1920), pastor, theologian, and Prime Minister of the Netherlands (1901–1905), to the Islamic religion. The topicality of the question is given by the changed context: today there is a significant Muslim community with an immigrant background living in Western Europe. The study first introduces the sources examined, examining Kuyper’s lectures in Princeton in 1898 and his Middle Eastern travel diary. The second part points out Kuyper’s worldview motivations, then describes the similarity of Islam and theological liberalism in relation to the Holy Scripture, original sin, and the atonement. The study points out the simplicity and mysticism of Islam, which, according to Kuyper, is the main reason for its spread. The study finally draws conclusions about the challenges Islam poses to 21st-century Christianity.
Keywords: Islam, neo-Calvinism, mysticism, worldview
Ábel Veres: The Theatre of God’s Glory from a theodramatic perspective
Throughout the history of theology, the image of the theatre has often appeared in the Church, as in John Calvin, whose important contribution was the idea that the created world is the theatre of God’s glory. This claim is most fully developed in Hans Urs von Balthasar’s four-volume Theodramatik. In this work, Balthasar emphasizes the dynamics of divine revelation and the presence of the Church in the drama. The theatre metaphor can provide a meaningful narrative for 21st-century individuals who have lost their sense of purpose, clarifying human roles in theodrama. To do this, I will first introduce Balthasar’s dramatic theory, which is at the heart of the dramatic approach as a synthesis of epic and lyric. This third approach is not an external perspective, nor is it a purely subjective approach, but an approach that takes objectivity and subjectivity seriously and embraces them in the drama I will clarify this concept of being-in-drama by exploring key ideas in dramatic theory that engage human finite freedom. But drawing self-knowledge from the knowledge of God, I first reveal the functions of the persons of the Trinity in the drama, and then I relate the human possibilities of finite freedom to the work of the Trinity. By exploring the Church’s participation in the drama of the Trinity, we can better understand the Church’s role in addressing present challenges such as pandemics and wars, thus allowing the created world to be a stage for God’s glory truly.
Keywords: theodrama, God’s glory, Trinitarian roles, Church in drama, finite freedom
Abstracts of legal science studies
Benedek Ács: The system of the international sport law
This study explores the conceptual and practical differences between international and global sports law and their respective impact on national sports governance. It analyses the layered structure of lex sportiva and the legal influence of key international conventions, such as the UNESCO Anti-Doping Convention, the Macolin Convention, and the Saint-Denis Convention on Hungarian law. Within the framework of global sports law, the study examines the regulatory autonomy and enforcement challenges of major sports bodies like FIFA and the IOC. It concludes that international sports law relies on effective state cooperation, while global sports law is grounded in autonomous normative systems of sports federations, which often lack external legal accountability.
Keywords: international sport law, global sport law, international conventions
Dóra Fekete: The Definition and Importance of Social Participation
Looking back through history, the concept of the rule of law meant the prohibition of authoritarianism. The term ‘rule of law’ is often translated in Hungarian law as ‘Rechtsstaat’, which is the German word for a ‘state, based on law abidance’. In legislation, two competing trends can be identified: the exemplary and the casuistic. A legal loophole exists when there is no rule governing a specific situation, but a rule should exist based on a higher principle or norm. A ‘Laboratory-level clean’ rule of law exists only in theory. In my view, one of the most important components of the rule of law today is judicial independence.
Dávid Keskeny: Consumer Protection Monitoring Activities of the Hungarian National Bank
The consumer protection monitoring activities of the Magyar Nemzeti Bank (MNB) have evolved in response to the transformation of the financial sector in the 21st century, within the framework of the integrated supervision model. With the 2013 merger of the MNB and the PSFSO, the MNB’s powers have been extended to both prudential and consumer protection areas, allowing for a balance between financial stability and consumer interests. The MNB’s monitoring system adopts a risk-based, data-driven approach, including systematic analysis of market trends, abuses, product risks and consumer complaints. Monitoring is not only a reactive tool but also the basis for proactive, preventive interventions. The MNB’s toolbox includes thematic studies, analysis of customer service databases, machine learning-based complaint processing and integration of international recommendations. The functioning of the system is multidisciplinary, combining legal, economic, sociological and IT expertise. The main objectives of monitoring are to identify, predict and prevent risks and to inform market players and consumers. In recent years, the monitoring has resulted in the MNB applying recommendations, warnings and regulatory measures, significantly influencing market behaviour. The Hungarian model is also internationally advanced, especially in the integration of data-driven analysis and educational tools. Future challenges include sustainability, digitalisation, artificial intelligence and addressing social vulnerability. The paper underlines that monitoring is not a mere technical task, but a regulatory philosophy that serves the public interest, enhancing social justice and financial culture. The MNB’s consumer protection monitoring is thus key to the sustainable development of the domestic financial system and to increasing consumer confidence.
Keywords: the central bank of Hungary (MNB), consumer protection, data-driven analysis
Árpád Lapu: Different meanings of neutrality in different areas of law, in different layers of law, from the perspective of the neutral legal status of states in international law
The concept of neutrality has different meanings in different layers of law, legal areas, and even within a single legal field. This can cause significant problems in terms of permanent and ad hoc neutrality, as well as during the application of the law of neutrality in international law. The aim of this study is to map out, with the help of the theories of the layers of law, the meanings in which the term neutrality occurs. The examination of the different layers of law has shown that the use of the term neutrality in the individual layers varies from one layer to another. It can be stated that even within international law and the law of neutrality, the exact meaning of neutrality is not clear, which causes numerous practical legal disputes and can make it difficult to establish the scope and application of the law of neutrality.
Keywords: legal dogmatics, permanent and ad hoc neutrality, law of neutrality, international law, the theory of the layers of law
Nóra Ripp-Nagy: Fundamental constitutional questions of ‘ius vitae’
The study examines the historical development of first-generation fundamental human rights and the trends and legal theoretical queastions that investigate the origin of human rights. The four main types are natual rights, moral rights, legal positivism, and international rights. After the general abstract of the legal theory-historical idea, the study focuses on the legal institutions in concreto regulated in our current Hungarian law concerning the ius vitae, especially on abortion, the death penalty, and euthanasia.
Keywords: constitutional law, fundamental rights, right to life
Tamás Szőnyegi: Federation of Nations – Bosnia and Herzegovina as an unstable model of a modern, democratic ethno-federation – 30 years of the Dayton Peace Agreement
In the following essay, I would like to present the state structure of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a special focus on its ethnic elements. At the beginning of the essay, I would like to present a brief historical overview of the processes that have led to the present state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. I will then briefly describe the structures of representation at the federal, entity and sub-entity levels in Bosnia and Herzegovina and examine how the three constituent nations – Bosnian, Croat and Serb – are represented at the different decision-making levels. The aim of the paper is also to assess the territorial institutions of power-sharing in this Western Balkan state and to draw a kind of functional balance of a multi-ethnic and thus necessarily ethnically based state. We will examine which institutions of association have proved to be functional and which have not. The topicality of the paper is also due to the fact that this year marks the 30th anniversary of the Dayton Peace Agreement, which has shaped the state structures examined here. To mark the 30th anniversary, we would like to take stock of the achievements of the peace agreement and to present some trends from the past decades of this particular ethnofederation.
Keywords: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Republika Srpska, Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, territorial-based power-sharing models, ethnocracy, functionality, consociational mechanisms
Dániel Szűcs: The Historical Development of Human Trafficking in Hungarian Criminal Law: A Retrospective from Four Penal Codes
The Historical Development of Human Trafficking in Hungarian Criminal Law: A Retrospective from Four Penal Codes
Human trafficking, as one of the gravest infringements against human freedom and dignity – a prohibition also articulated in the Fundamental Law – did not initially appear as a distinct offence in our criminal law. This study analyses the codification progress of Hungarian criminal law from the perspective of substantive legal regulations, from the Csemegi Code (Act V of 1878) to Act C of 2012. The central question of this examination is to uncover the responses provided by the various penal codes regarding the exploitation occurring within the framework of human trafficking. Concurrently with the dynamism of the national legal materials, the provisions and regulatory concepts that have emerged in international instruments are also presented. The study concludes that the specific provision of human trafficking was not incorporated into our national legal system through organic development but rather was implemented due to various international commitments.
Keywords: human trafficking, forced labour, codification, Code Csemegi, Palermo Protocol, Warsaw Convention, Directive 2011/36/EU, Act C of 2012, Hungarian Criminal Code, historical overview
Boglárka Tóth: Constitutional Issues of Abortion Law, with Special Emphasis on the 2022 Abortion Decree
This paper examines the constitutional questions of the 29/2022. (IX. 12.) Decree by the Minister of Interior – commonly called as the Heartbeat Decree. The study evaluates this legislation against domestic and international abortion frameworks. The paper provides a historical overview of Hungarian abortion regulations up to the present day, with special attention to the social and political background of legislation, and presents the potential and demonstrated impact of the Decree on the fundamental rights of affected groups. From a constitutional law perspective, the study focuses on the balancing of competing fundamental rights between the state’s obligation to protect fetuses and women’s right to self-determination. The study includes focused analysis of several constitutional concerns, such as proportionality issues, discrimination principles, and the lack of public consultation. The research explores the decree’s potentially disproportionate effects on vulnerable populations. It also considers men’s position in abortion discourse and legal and practical challenges surrounding emergency contraception. The study does not declare the Heartbeat Decree definitively unconstitutional. However, it emphasizes that balancing competing constitutional interests requires social dialogue, education, and thoughtful regulation. This approach should aim to reduce burdens placed on women. The aim of the paper is to contribute to the deepening of legal and ethical discourse on abortion in the 21st century Hungarian constitutional state by presenting key perspectives on this issue.
Keywords: constitutional law, fundamental rights, abortion, right to life, history of abortion, ’Heartbeat Decree’, legislation, reproductive rights
Kordélia Tóth: The Impact of Digitalization of Independent Judicial Enforcement
The term abortion comes from the Latin word abortio, which means premature birth. Abortion in its modern sense (i.e. termination of pregnancy) was a widely practised activity in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The moral aspect of abortion cannot, of course, be separated from the biological, medical, psychological, social and legal aspects of the issue, which can only be approached from a complex perspective. When the question of abortion arises, the mother and father of the foetus, and in most cases their relatives, are also faced with this moral issue. In this article, I will present the best-known ethical arguments for and against abortion, as well as the Hungarian legal framework.
Keywords: abortion, ethics, law, philosophy
Abstracts in historical studies
Alexandra Batonai: The Formation of Sikh Identity and the Historical Roots of Sikh Separatism
The Indian subcontinent is well-known for its religious, ethnic, cultural, geographical, and linguistic diversity. During the colonial era, the British Empire applied the principle of “divide et impera”, deliberately creating tensions among India’s different communities in order to maintain its control by deepening social and religious divisions. After gaining independence, India’s nationalist leaders had to face the long-lasting consequences of this strategy. In response, the Indian government sought to promote peace under the slogan “unity in diversity.” Nevertheless, several minority groups continued to demand autonomy or even the creation of a separate state. Among them, the Sikhs stood out, whose independence agitation became known as the Khalistan Movement.
This paper aims to explore the roots and causes of the Sikh separatist movement, with particular attention to the development of a distinct Sikh identity and its most important characteristics. In addition, by examining the main political demonstrations and violent actions of the separatists, it seeks to answer the question of how far the Khalistan agitation was able to threaten India’s internal political stability by the end of the 1980s. Finally, this study will briefly consider whether, in the context of contemporary political developments, the Khalistan movement may still pose a threat to India’s territorial integrity.
The relevance of this research is justified by two principal considerations. Firstly, the question of Khalistan continues to represent a current and highly sensitive issue within Indian political discourse. Secondly, the academic study of Sikhism in Hungary remains significantly less developed in comparison to the more extensively examined religious traditions such as Christianity, Islam, or Hinduism. Accordingly, this paper aims to contribute to the enrichment of Hungarian academic scholarship by addressing a relatively underexplored, yet highly significant topic within the fields of religious and political studies.
Keywords: India, Sikhism, Khalistan Movement, security challenges, identity, separatism
Kristóf Berta – Árpád Kecskeméti – Zoltán Veres: Conference on The Occasion of The 111th Anniversary of The Birth of Kálmán Benda
Kálmán Benda was a defining figure of the Hungarian history. As a young scholar, he participated in the operation of the first state-run folk high school, as the director and teacher of the Tata Folk High School. His Protestant background and spirituality have always defined his interests and scientific activities. On December 3, 2024, the Magyary Zoltán Folk High School Association (Magyary Zoltán Népfőiskolai Társaság — MZNT) and the Reformed High School of Tata organized a conference with a commemorative ceremony on the occasion of the 111th anniversary of the birth of Kálmán Benda (1913-1994), historian, archivist, former head of the Tata Folk High School, and first president of the Hungarian Folk High School Association. This study processes and combines the topics of the three lectures given at the memorial conference with the aim of providing a broad overview of the scientific activities of Kálmán Benda, who was born 111 years ago, and presents his personal motivations.
Keywords: Kálmán Benda, Zoltán Magyary, History, folk high school
Krisztián Bödő: The Manor of Ercsi under Baron Ignác Eötvös
Ignác Eötvös (1786–1851), father of József Eötvös, took over the management of the Ercsi estate as a tenant in 1831/1832, after his mother-in-law, widow Julianna Szapáry (1764–1831) died. The manor of Ercsi located in Fejér county and was vast. It was an innovative farm in the Kingdom of Hungary at that time. It was therefore a key acquisition of the Baron Eötvös family. The aim of this study is to use sporadic source fragments to answer the question of whether the Ercsi manor remained a progressive farm during the estate management of Ignác Eötvös. The question is relevant primarily because Ercsi played an important role in the bankruptcy proceedings initiated against the baron in 1841 as a pool of assets to satisfy the creditors’ claims. At the same time, the aim of the study is to contribute to the family history of József Eötvös.
Keywords: manor, estate management, Eötvös family, model farm
Ádám Lajos Csík: Case Studies From The 1980s on The Internal and External Activities of the Workers’ Militia in Békés County
The organization of the Workers’ Militia served the protection of the Kádár regime not only through armed service or through tasks related to homeland and disaster protection. This article presents the Békés County Command of the Workers’ Militia and its propaganda activities within the county, through specific case examples. In the first part of the study, the work of the Propaganda and Press Department—responsible for coordinating propaganda activities at the national level—is discussed, introducing its organizational framework, tasks, and the possibilities for internal feedback on the effectiveness of propaganda. In terms of press products, propaganda in Békés County was most commonly and traditionally disseminated through the Békés Megyei Népújság, which served as the primary communication channel for the Workers’ Militia to deliver its messages. The main objective was to present the organizational connection established for youth education, along with its educational and propaganda content. The main conclusion of the study is that the primary purpose of these propaganda efforts was to communicate the key messages of the Hungarian Socialist Workers’ Party (MSZMP) and to popularize the organization of the Workers’ Militia.
Keywords: Workers’ Militia, propaganda, Békés County, press, youth education
Andrea Fodor: Erasmus and The Hungarian Literary Language: Our Erasmian Bible Translators
Following a brief introduction to the spirit of Erasmianism, this study presents the work of a specific group of Hungarian Erasmians, the Bible translators aiming to demonstrate the significant influence of Erasmus of Rotterdam and Erasmian Bible translators on the development of the Hungarian literary language. Benedek Komjáthy, with his work The Letters of Saint Paul in Hungarian, laid the foundations of modern Hungarian philology. Gábor Pesti made his mark in Hungarian history with his New Testament, which included translations of the Four Gospels, then with the translation of Aesop’s Fables, and his supplementation of the dictionary Nomenclatura Sex Linguarum. János Sylvester contributed with his complete Hungarian translation of the New Testament. In his Grammatica Hungarolatina, Sylvester made grammatical observations that remain valid today and left a lasting impact on European comparative linguistics. A review of the Erasmian features in their works reveals that all three played a crucial role in establishing a Hungarian literature based on humanist, Erasmian principles and laying the foundations of Hungarian rhetorical literature.
Keywords: humanism, Erasmianism, Erasmus, Bible translators, Komjáthy, Pesti, Sylvester
Sándor György: The 1956 Court-martial of Aladár Dudik (Kesztölc), When The Tribunal Contested its Own Jurisdiction
The history of Kesztölc during the Revolution of 1956 is still the source of urban myths (e. g. the Republic of Kesztölc), which were made up after the revolution by local communists to justify the severe retribution. The press deemed Aladár Dudik – who spent 4 years in prison due to political persecution – one of the „counter-revolutionary” leaders of the mining village, though he was sentenced for concealing weapons. In this paper I would like to expound his court martial not free from discrepancies and infringements, touching on the history of Kesztölc between 1945 and 1956, especially the 1952 „counter-revolutionary conspiracy”. The researched documents had several interesting additions to the 1956 history of Kesztölc as well as to the court-martial used as means of political repression after the revolution.
Keywords: Revolution of 1956, retribution, judicial act, Kesztölc, Martial law 1956
Botond Gergő Samu: The ‘Double Life’ of A County Map (1785–1850)
Cartographic documents can be very helpful in historical research, there is a wide range of application and usability concerning the information we can gain from them. It’s even more intriguing when a map was modified in accordance with the expectations of a new era. This essay presents the first large scale printed county map of Hungary, which was published in 1785 and depicts Vas County on the Western border of the kingdom. The background of this map is quite interesting itself, but some of its copies were overdrawn around the end of 1849 or the beginning of 1850 according to the demands of the Habsburg government. The land surveyor, or as they called him this time ‘chief engineer’ of the county had to plan the new borders of the districts, based on ethnic distribution. These maps give a reader a unique opportunity not only to observe the old and the new borders, but the distribution of the nationalities as well. In the end of this essay, I also take into account the other cartographic sources of that period, until the beginning of the 1860s, so we could see the finalized administrative borders.
Keywords: history of cartography, administration, Vas County, Bach-era, ethnic groups