“…A Constitution is not the act of a Government, but of a people constituting a Government; and Government without a Constitution is power without a right…”[1]
I. Introductory thoughts
The idea of good and just governance has been the subject of ongoing debate among people, statespeople, politicians, philosophers, Church Fathers, theologians and thinkers ever since independent states took shape. How to set limits to governance and avoid personal rule? Although the term ‘rule of law’ was not yet in use in earlier historical eras, some elements of it were already very close to being established in antiquity: see, for instance, the division of power in Aristotle’s works. It was in later eras, particularly the age of embourgeoisement, that many processes converged into a crystallization of the idea of human rights and the formulation of the ideal of a state regulated by law. Obviously, the nature of law also matters here: law must be supported by morality (material rule of law in terms of substance),[2] considering that even dictatorships have legal systems. Later on, the necessity of law being supported by morality was expressed by natural law theories, reaching their peak in the 17th and 18th centuries, but the connection between morality and law had already been discussed in antiquity as well. The ideals and principles of human rights, created by continental Europe, were demolished by the two world wars, dubbed “Europe’s attempted suicide” by Iván Halász. The far-right, i.e., so-called national socialist ideology as well as the far-left systems consisted of mixtures of horrific principles.[3] Europe cast aside all the values and results it had achieved so far. It would try to recover from this shock after World War II, creating the opposition of the Western and Eastern world in a political, ideological and economical sense.
As to the rule of law, this term obviously refers to a democratic state regulated by law and rights, which acknowledges and enforces human rights, and which is composed of countless elements.
In this article, I intend to present the theoretical aspect of the Anglo-Saxon approach to the often analyzed concept of the rule of law, primarily based on the ideas, works and oeuvre of English jurist Albert Venn Dicey (1835–1922) and American politician and thinker Thomas Paine (1737–1809). By Anglo-Saxon countries, I mean the former colonies of the Crown of England where the English way of legal thinking has taken hold (Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States), and, naturally, the UK itself.
Many authors have listed the main components of the rule of law. The task is daunting, since the elements of this concept can vary or expand during each historical era. However, the concept cannot be indefinitely relativized. Components of the rule of law include:
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- the existence as well as regular and substantially appropriate operation of certain institutions (Constitutional Court, ombudsman, independent courts, administrative courts, etc.),
- the existence as well as practical implementation of certain state organization principles (division of power, sovereignty),
- the enforcement of constitutional principles and values (legal certainty, clarity of norms),
- the human rights and their unconditional enforcement,
- the implementation of the principles of constitutional criminal law, and
- the operation of other democratic techniques (e.g., democratic elections, replaceability of the government) in the state.
A detailed elaboration of these components involves listings of loads of institutions and principles, a work already done by countless previous authors. In addition to the customary categories of the rule of law based on eras (liberal rule of law, social rule of law, constitutional rule of law), there is also an Anglo-Saxon, a German and a French approach to the concept.[4] The German term for the rule of law is Rechtsstaat, which means ‘a state regulated by law’, also reflected in the Hungarian term “jogállam”.
II. Thomas Paine and Albert Venn Dicey on the rule of law
In Thomas Paine’s (1737–1809) opinion,[5] when it comes to free states and states governed by the rule of law, “the law is king” in the state, while in absolute governments it is the other way around, “the king is law”. Paine believed in the idea and government form of republic and supported the independence of the United States of America. Born in England, he expressed his views in the United States, then passed away in France. He deemed the creation of a constitution absolutely necessary. He summarized his thoughts in his works Common Sense (1776) and Rights of Man (1791).[6] George Washington, the first president of the USA and commander of its army in the American War of Independence, was also deeply influenced by Common Sense. Paine rejected colonization policy and believed in an independent state existence. He considered government to be a necessary evil even at its best. He deemed it important that the elected would not sense their interests to be separate from those of the electors, and that the government should aim to provide freedom and security. He wrote: “I draw my idea of the form of government from a principle in nature which no art can overturn, viz. that the more simple any thing is, the less liable it is to be disordered, and the easier repaired when disordered; and with this maxim in view I offer a few remarks on the so much boasted constitution of England.”[7] In his opinion, the English system of monarchy was imperfect, tyrannical, and unable to make good on its promises. He stigmatized absolute governments as the disgrace of human nature, but acknowledged their advantage that, if the people suffered, they knew the head from which their suffering sprang. Although its legal system is of Anglo-Saxon origin, the USA opposed England during its pursuit of independence, and therefore its legal development is characterized by the rejection of monarchy from the very start. Paine deems the means of monarchy to be ridiculous inasmuch as it excludes people from information, so in a monarchy, the means cannot accomplish the end. However, he acknowledges that individuals are undoubtedly safer in England than in some other countries, which means that the crown is not as oppressive there as elsewhere.[8] In his opinion, everything that is ascribed to government is, in fact, rather the creation and will of society. The various interests of the community are embodied by the representative system, and this is what places the government in the state of constant monitoring.[9] In Rights of Man, Paine makes suggestions of economical measures[10] and state allowances as well. However, he thinks that “society performs for itself almost everything which is ascribed to Government”. “No one man is capable,” he writes, “without the aid of society, of supplying his own wants”, and this is what forces man into society.[11]
Albert Venn Dicey (1835–1922) considered the rule of law to be a characteristic of English law. This concept means that “the government has no arbitrary power”, that is, the arbitrariness of the government has to be excluded. Secondly, he means by this that “every man is subject to the ordinary law of the realm and amenable to the jurisdiction of the ordinary tribunals” (equality before the law), and that the constitution is a result of the ordinary law of the land, i.e., not its source but its consequence, by which he refers to the fact that in foreign states the opposite is true, i.e., there is a Code of Constitution, unlike in England.[12] The actual implementation of the concept of the rule of law can be experienced through a number of freedoms. These rights (conditions), telltale signs of the presence or absence of the rule of law, are the following: the right to personal freedom, the right to freedom of discussion, the right of public meeting, the application of martial law, the rights and obligations of the army, the collection and expending of state revenue, and the responsibility of ministers.[13] The rule of law favors parliamentary sovereignty. Throughout his entire oeuvre, Dicey emphasizes the difference between the English concept of the rule of law and the French Continental concept, the former being preferable. In his opinion, the main fault with the French system is that civil servants are protected from “the ordinary law of the land”.[14]
According to Dicey, the rule of law means basically four things: equality of all citizens before the law, uniformity of courts, unacceptability of raison d’état (state interest) as an excuse for an unlawful act, and observance of the old maxim nullum crimen sine lege.[15] He explains that the statutory rights or obligations of every person are, almost without exception, determined by the ordinary tribunals. He contrasts the idea of the rule of law to systems where any person has wide-ranging arbitrary or discretionary power. The concept of the “rule of law”, he adds, has been implemented in the United States and received a development commensurate with England; but it is an idea not so much unknown to as deliberately rejected by the constitution-makers of France, and of other Continental countries which have, in his opinion, followed French guidance.[16] “Dicey says that ‘constitutional law, as the term is used in England, appears to include all rules which directly or indirectly affect the distribution or the exercise of the sovereign power of the state.’ These ‘rules’ fall into two broad categories. The first category of rules are laws, strictly understood. These laws are written and unwritten, statutory and customary, which are usually called the Common Law. These laws are known and recognized to be laws, because—this is the important determining factor—they are enforced by the courts. The other broad category of rules are what Dicey calls ‘conventions’ of the constitution. The rules of this second category are not in strictness laws, they are not enforced or enforceable by the courts; but they are the usual and customary practice of politicians and civil servants, and represent what Dicey calls ‘political’ or ‘constitutional morality’. The law of the constitution, then, is of two pieces: the relatively unambiguous laws, derived from judicial decisions and Parliamentary enactments, precisely expressed and recognized by the courts and the relatively ambiguous, largely implicit, conventions, which are part of political practice and morality and enter into public opinion.”[17] Nowadays, Common Law is mostly synonymous to case law and considered to be the main source of English law.[18] Today, the importance of laws has increased, but precedents serving as a basis of laws still play a significant role. “When, however, an issue is regulated by law, this overrules any precedent possibly contradicting it. Therefore, even in the common law system, laws occupy a higher level in the hierarchy of the sources of law than judicial decisions.”[19]
Based on all this, the English view can be summarized as follows: “In the English way of development, parliament, king and justice had separate, sometimes even conflicting places. Although legislation was the parliament’s task, precedents applied in judicial practice were considered law. Therefore, their requirement of the rule of law was not simply subjection to the law, but primarily that any conflict should be able to be adjudicated by a judicial forum.”[20]
So, in the English view of the rule of law, judicial power receives a special emphasis. As Barna Horváth puts it: “The viewpoint of case law… only considers specifically applied law to be law, and legislation is only a prelude to lawmaking.”[21] Just like Ákos Timon, Barna Horváth also thinks that the English and Hungarian systems of law are similar, but from an entirely different viewpoint. With regard to the Holy Crown doctrine, Timon mentions that the greatness of Hungarian legal development can only be compared to England.[22] On the other hand, according to Horváth, English and Hungarian legal thinking are both opposed to the German one regarding the rejection of the theory of law.[23]
Reading through an English law, one can sense that it is less specific than Continental legal systems, and also has a different style.
Since this study is focused on the Anglo-Saxon trend of the idea of the rule of law and refrains from expanding on the German and French concepts of it, it must be pointed out that the rule of law can work even without the existence of some of the elements listed above. For instance, England has no Constitutional Court,[24] while in the case of the United States of America, built upon the English system of Common Law but following a partly different path, this task is fulfilled by the Supreme Court of the United States (this is the so-called decentralised model of constitutional justice) – still, both of these countries are governed by the rule of law. The absence or different operation of one (or a few) element(s) are no reason not to consider the operation of a state as rule of law. Similarly, it can be pointed out that some member states of the US have capital punishment, which is quite an exciting issue, since nowadays the majority of countries using capital punishment are not considered to be governed by the rule of law. On the other hand, this does not hold for the USA, characterized by a democratic technique of the exercise of power, and enforcing the principle of division of power as well as a multitude of human rights. Although I consider the above list of the elements of the rule of law to be valid, nowadays there are great differences between states in terms of their operation as well as the forms of state and government; therefore, some deviations are acceptable within the concept of the rule of law.
III. The interpretation of the rule of law in the practice of the Hungarian Constitutional Court
According to the Fundamental Law of Hungary, Hungary is an independent democratic state governed by the rule of law.[25] The Fundamental Law lists the principles of state organizations, the constitutional guarantees and the catalog of human rights ensuring the enforcement of the rule of law. I refrain from including the list here, as it has been analyzed by many authors before.
Although the decisions of the Constitutional Court before the acceptance of the Fundamental Law have been repealed, their legal effects are still valid. It cannot be excluded, either, that the Constitutional Court adopts a view that corresponds to its previous decisions. “The decisions of the Constitutional Court made prior to the entry into force of the Fundamental Law are repealed. This provision shall be without prejudice to the legal effects produced by those decisions,” says Section 5 of the Closing and Miscellaneous Provisions of the Fundamental Law. Let us examine the most important decisions of the Constitutional Court with regard to the rule of law, without aiming to give an exhaustive list.
Pursuant to Decision No. 34/1991. (VI. 15.) of the Constitutional Court, “in order that the principle of legal certainty, intimately connected to the rule of law, shall be completely enforced, it is indispensable that the publication of acts shall be in accordance with the constitutional requirement stated in Section 12 (2) of the Law on Legislation, i.e., that ‘with regard to the period prior to its publication, the act cannot establish any obligation and cannot declare any behaviour as unlawful’.” (DCC 1991, 170, 173.)
Pursuant to Decision No. 25/1992. (IV. 30.) of the Constitutional Court, “legal certainty is an important constituent of the rule of law that requires, among others, that the rights and obligations of citizens shall be regulated by legislation published in the way laid down by the law and accessible to anyone, providing a real possibility for entities to align their behavior to the requirements of the law. To that effect, acts shall not establish any obligation with regard to the period prior to their publication and shall not declare any lawful behaviour as unlawful with retroactive effect.” (DCC 1992, 131, 132.)
Pursuant to Decision No. 7/1992. (I. 30.) of the Constitutional Court, the requirement of legal certainty follows inevitably from the sentence of the Constitution declaring the rule of law. (DCC 1992, 45, 48.)
Pursuant to Decision No. 9/1992. (I. 30.) of the Constitutional Court, “The principle of the rule of law is detailed by the further provisions of the Fundamental Law; however, these rules do not explete the content of this basic value entirely; therefore, the interpretation of the concept of the rule of law is an important task of the Constitutional Court. The principles fulfilling the basic value of the rule of law are explained by the Constitutional Court gradually, on a case-by-case basis.” It also points out that legal certainty is an indispensable element of the rule of law. (DCC 1992, 59, 65.)
Decision No. 11/1992. (III. 5.) of the Constitutional Court is one of the most widely known decisions. Here, the Constitutional Court establishes that “the qualification of Hungary as a state governed by the rule of law is a statement of fact as well as a program. The rule of law is implemented by the Constitution really and unconditionally coming into effect. Not only shall the laws and the functioning of state bodies be strictly consistent with the Constitution, but the conceptual culture and values of the Constitution should permeate society as a whole. It is the rule of law that makes the Constitution a reality. Making the rule of law a reality is a process.” (DCC 1992, 77, 80.)
Pursuant to Decision No. 43/1995. (VI. 30.) of the Constitutional Court, legal certainty is the most important element of the rule of law, and the respect for vested rights is part of the rule of law as well. (DCC 1995, 188, 192, 193.)
Decision No. 5/1997. (II. 7.) of the Constitutional Court repeats the often voiced idea that legal certainty is considered the most important part of the rule of law. “Legal certainty, as interpreted by the Constitutional Court, requires from the state, from the lawmaker, that the entirety of law as well as each of its subdivisions and regulations should be clear and unequivocal, understandable and practicable for the addressees of the standard as well.” (DCC 1997, 55, 65.)
Pursuant to Decision No. 62/2003. (XII. 15.) of the Constitutional Court, “requirements of the democratic rule of law include the division of power, the obligation of the separated constitutional bodies to cooperate, the mutual respect of the procedural and decision-making autonomy and the decision-making of the separated bodies, and the existence of and adherence to procedural rules resulting from the Constitution.” It also adds that, in a state governed by the rule of law, there is no unlimited or unlimitable power. (DCC 2003, 637, 644.)
In Decision No. 12/2006. (IV. 24.) of the Constitutional Court, a previous statement is repeated, i.e., that “the constitutional requirements of a democratic rule of law determine the framework and limitations of the activity of the National Assembly and the Government as well as of the exercise of public power in general”. It is repeatedly emphasized that democratically accepted procedural rules and decision-making in compliance to these rules are prerequisites to the rule of law. (DCC 2006, 234, 245, 247.)
Pursuant to Decision No. 131/2008. (XI. 3.) of the Constitutional Court, in a state governed by the rule of law, any political pursuit can only be implemented within the framework of the Constitution. A reform of the public administration system cannot be implemented by setting aside the provisions of the Constitution. (DCC 2008, Vol. I., 1072, 1078.)
Decision No. 8/2011. (II. 18.) of the Constitutional Court emphasizes the respect for vested rights and the subjection of public administration to the law as parts of the rule of law. It states that “Any violation of the procedural rules of decision-making forming part of the rule of law may result in the decision being formally invalid under the public law.” (DCC 2011, 49, 65.)
Decision No. 12/2013. (V. 24.) of the Constitutional Court states that “the Constitutional Court has established in several decisions that the procedural guarantees of lawmaking result from the principles of the rule of law and legal certainty; therefore, valid laws can only be made in adherence to the rules of the formalized procedure. A lawmaking procedure with a formal error serves as a base for nullification of the law with retroactive effect from the day of its publication, so any violation of the constitution committed during lawmaking in and of itself enables the annullability of the law. Adherence to each procedural rule of the lawmaking process is a requirement of the validity of the law under the rule of law; any serious procedural irregularity causes formal invalidity under the public law, which, in turn, results in the nullification of the law {Decision No. 6/2013. (III. 1.) of the Constitutional Court, Justification [63–72.]}.” The decision emphasizes the closed and contradiction-free nature of the Fundamental Law, which means that any amendment to the constitution must be integrated into the text of the Fundamental Law. This is the commandment of integration. [24] [166][26]
IV. Closing thoughts
With regard to their key elements, the Anglo-Saxon and Continental legal systems recognized the greatest legal and moral achievements of humanity and defined these as parts of the rule of law. All the democratic countries of the world have attained the level of development where they recognized the achievements produced by human thought and entrusted to mankind as a synthesis of ancient Greek philosophy, Roman law, the Enlightenment, Christianity, and Jewish law and religion.[27]
However, there may be a difference in how these are enforced in practice, since, for instance, the judicial system is totally different in the precedent-based English-speaking Anglo-Saxon legal systems compared to the Continental (Hungarian, Spanish, French, Italian, German) ones in use across the rest of Europe, based on the foundations of Roman law. The Anglo-Saxon system is characterized by the key role of precedents, unlike in the Continental countries relying on the law, where legal certainty is guaranteed by the law. Additionally, England has a historic (unwritten) constitution based on about 350 constitutional documents, as well as customary law, while in the Continental systems, legal certainty is guaranteed by the law. These two views differ in legal education, in the role of lawyers[28] and in judicial practice as well. In Anglo-Saxon law, lawyers play a more active role in lawmaking and law application, while in the Continental legal systems, the influence of judges and jurists is more significant. In the Continental systems, the separation of public and private law is more pronounced.
As Csaba Varga points out, the rule of law became a widely used term, a trendy catchphrase with great differences in its content, “as all kinds of authors ‘use it as a wildcard slogan for any imaginable trend they might want to follow’”.[29] Not to mention that this term has gained a very diverse interpretation in today’s Europe, in the European Union, since, while some deem certain things to be part of liberal democracy and the rule of law, other states consider the same to be dangerous threats and aim to implement the rule of law on a Christian national basis. Rule of law is not the only trendy catchphrase around. Similarly, human rights, globalization and digitalization are being mentioned all the time. The standards for the rule of law are determined by the international conventions on human rights and the organizations aiming to enforce them, the guarantee of which is primarily the Council of Europe[30] and, at an international level, the UN. These organizations can be considered to represent an objective standard. Originally, the European Union was not created with the aim of protecting rights, but by today, it gradually expanded the scope of its attention to encompass human rights[31] and the closely related rule of law, which, however, each member state interprets differently. Tension and different visions among the states were evoked by issues like migration or the Russian–Ukrainian war. Today, this mindset has created a gap between the Western and Eastern half of Europe. However, the values and elements of the rule of law cannot be indefinitely relativized; therefore, we must find a common criterion as the base of law. The only thing that can serve as the criterion of law is morality; however, law does not include moral correctness, which is an addition from outside, as Gyula Moór points out. By morality, he means “the ultimate measure of the correctness of human actions and wills”.[32] This criterion should be Christian morality, says Moór, which is the moral view of the entire Western culture, with key values such as the love of neighbor, the idea of justice and the respect for the nation.[33] Nowadays, the European Union advocates a global set of values contrary to nation-state policy; therefore, the fundamental rights fulfill a different role: they have become limitations of nation-state policy.[34] The relationship between the rule-of-law paradigm and globalization is complex, complicated and manifold. Globalization exerts an influence on the rule of law, since the increasing international concentration sets new political and economical challenges to legal systems. At the same time, the rule of law plays an important role in globalization, since it ensures legal certainty and adherence to rules in international relations. A balance between the two concepts would be a key element to shaping a sustainable and just world order.
In my opinion, the common criterion today should be the moral standard crystallized as a result of the values mentioned above (i.e., ancient Greek philosophy, Roman law, the Enlightenment, Christianity, Jewish law and religion), advocating people’s equality before the law and courts, a ban on all kinds of negative discrimination, human dignity, and the inviolability of absolute rights and prohibitions.[35]
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Paczolay, Péter: A jogállam káprázatától az angol jogelmélet valóságáig Horváth Barna írásaiban (From the Mirage of the Rule of Law to the Reality of English Theory of Law in the Writings of Barna Horváth), Jog – Állam – Politika (Law, State, Politics), Vol. 3, No. 4, 2011.
Paine, Thomas: Common Sense. Of the Origin and Design of Government in General, with Concise Remarks on the English Constitution, USHistory.org, https://www.ushistory.org/Paine/commonsense/sense2.htm
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Timon, Ákos: A Szent Korona elmélete és a koronázás (Theory of the Holy Crown and the Coronation), 2nd, enhanced edition, Budapest, Stephaneum Nyomda R.T., 1920.
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References
- Thomas Paine: Rights of Man, London, J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. / New York, E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc., 1966, 182 ↑
- As J. Zoltán Tóth puts it, all the requirements of the formal rule of law are prerequisites to the material rule of law. See J. Zoltán Tóth: A jogállamiság tartalma (The Substance of the Rule of Law), Jogtudományi Közlöny (Journal of Legal Studies), Vol. 74, No. 5, 2019, 201. ↑
- See Iván Halász: Az emberi jogok civilizációs meghatározottsága (The civilisational definition of human rights), in Stefánia Bódi – Gábor Schweitzer (eds.), Alapjogok: Az emberi jogok alkotmányos védelme Magyarországon (Fundamental Rights: The Constitutional Protection of Human Rights in Hungary), Budapest, Ludovika Kiadó, 2021, 24. and 31–32. ↑
- See András Patyi: A jogállamiság (jogállam, alkotmányos jogállam, demokratikus jogállam; a magyar alkotmányosság jogállam-értelmezése és jogállam-tartalma) [The Rule of Law (State Governed by the Rule of Law, Constitutional Rule of Law, Democratic Rule of Law; The Interpretation and Substance of the Rule of Law in Hungarian Constitutionality)], in Iván Halász (ed.): Alkotmányjog (Constitutional Law), Budapest, Dialóg Campus Kiadó, 2018, 25–39., 28. ↑
- Paine on the idea that the law is king (1776), The Online Library of Liberty, https://oll.libertyfund.org/quote/paine-on-the-idea-that-the-law-is-king-1776 ↑
- See Paine: The Rights of Man ↑
- See Thomas Paine: Common Sense. Of the Origin and Design of Government in General, with Concise Remarks on the English Constitution, USHistory.org, https://www.ushistory.org/Paine/commonsense/sense2.htm ↑
- See Paine: Common Sense ↑
- Paine: Rights of Man, 157., 177. and 182. ↑
- Paine: Rights of Man, 157. ↑
- Paine: Rights of Man, 157. ↑
- Albert Venn Dicey: Bevezetés az angol alkotmányjogba (Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution), Budapest, Magyar Tudományos Akadémia (Hungarian Academy of Sciences), 1902, 177–191. / Albert Venn Dicey: Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, Indianapolis, LibertyClassics, 1982, 110–120. ↑
- Dicey: Bevezetés az angol alkotmányjogba, 192–193.; Dicey: Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, 121–122. ↑
- Dicey: Bevezetés az angol alkotmányjogba, 184.; Dicey: Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, 115. ↑
- Roger E. Michener: Foreword, in Albert Venn Dicey: Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, Indianapolis, LibertyClassics, 1982, xxii. ↑
- Dicey: Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, 315; Michener: Foreword, xxi. ↑
- R Michener: Foreword, xix. ↑
- Cf. Katalin Kelemen: A common law jogrendszerek (The Common Law Legal Systems), in András Jakab – Balázs Fekete (eds.): Internetes Jogtudományi Enciklopédia (The Internet Encyclopedia of Jurisprudence), 2018, http://ijoten.hu/szocikk/a-common-law-jogrendszerek, [2], [6] ↑
- Kelemen: The Common Law Legal Systems [22] ↑
- Csaba Varga: Joguralom, jogállam: eszményiségtől a zsarolásig (The Rule of Law: from Idealism to Blackmailing), Iustum Aequum Salutare, Vol. 17, No. 2, 2021, 165–166 ↑
- Barna Horváth: Angol jogelmélet (English Theory of Law), Budapest, Magyar Tudomány Akadémia (Hungarian Academy of Sciences), 1943, 5. ↑
- Ákos Timon: A Szent Korona elmélete és a koronázás (Theory of the Holy Crown and the Coronation), 2nd, enhanced edition, Budapest, Stephaneum Nyomda R.T., 1920, 7. ↑
- Péter Paczolay: A jogállam káprázatától az angol jogelmélet valóságáig Horváth Barna írásaiban (From the Mirage of the Rule of Law to the Reality of English Theory of Law in the Writings of Barna Horváth), Jog – Állam – Politika (Law, State, Politics), Vol. 3, No. 4, 2011, 17.; Barna Horváth: A Common Law ideológiája és a jogismeret ideológiája (The Ideology of Common Law and of Legal Knowledge), Társadalomtudomány (Social Sciences), Vol. 10, No. 3, 1930, 90. ↑
- It should be pointed out, though, that it has been acting like a constitutional court for years. Cf. Michael Keating: A Constitutional Court? Centre of Constitutional Change, September 2019, https://www.centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk/news-and-opinion/constitutional-court ↑
- The Fundamental Law of Hungary, Foundation, Article B) ↑
- Personal opinion of Constitutional Court Judge Dr. István Stumpf ↑
- See Halász: The civilisational definition of human rights, 20. ↑
- A well-known difference is the distinction between solicitors and barristers. Solicitors offer specialized legal advice to their clients, be they individuals or organizations. The bulk of a solicitor’s activity takes place outside the court, although there may be cases where their presence is mandatory.Barristers represent their clients in court and are also often consulted for advice in their specialized area of law. Barristers often use legal work done by solicitors at trial or during their preparation before trial. See Grant Longstaff: Barrister or solicitor – What’s the difference? The University of Law, October 2022, https://www.law.ac.uk/resources/blog/the-difference-between-a-barrister-and-solicitor/ ↑
- See Varga: The Rule of Law, 159–160.; see also Richard Bellamy: Political Constitutionalism: a Republican Defence of the Constitutionality of Democracy, Cambridge–New York, Cambridge University Press, 2007, 54. ↑
- “The governments signatory hereto, being members of the Council of Europe, (…) being resolved, as the governments of European countries which are like-minded and have a common heritage of political traditions, ideals, freedom and the rule of law, to take the first steps for the collective enforcement of certain of the rights stated in the Universal Declaration, have agreed as follows…” Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Law XXXI of 1993 on the Publication of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Dated 4 November 1950 and Its Eight Amendment Protocols ↑
- “Conscious of its spiritual and moral heritage, the Union is founded on the indivisible, universal values of human dignity, freedom, equality and solidarity; it is based on the principles of democracy and the rule of law.” Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, Preamble ↑
- Gyula Moór: A helyes jog problémája (The Problem of the Rightness of Law), in Gyula Moór – Sándor Püski: Jogfilozófia (Philosophy of Law), Budapest, Püski, 1994, 245–247. ↑
- Moór: The Problem of the Rightness of Law, 252. ↑
- See Ákos Bence Gát: Az európai uniós jogállamiság-közpolitika kialakulásának átfogó jogi és politikatudományi elemzése (A Comprehensive Legal and Political Science Analysis of the Development of the European Union’s Policy on the Rule of Law), PhD thesis, Budapest, Ludovika University of Public Service, Doctoral School of Public Administration Sciences, 2021, 39–48. ↑
- These rights are included in the Fundamental Law and are in accordance with international conventions such as ICCPR or CPHRFF. ↑